This book is a course book for the students who take an Introduction to Linguistics sucbject.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………………………………. i
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………………. v
LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………………….. vi
1. ANIMAL AND HUMAN COMMUNICATION
1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2 Communication …………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.3 Animal Communication ……………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.4 Human Communication ………………………………………………………………………. 5
1.4.1 Speech ……………………………………………………………………………………. 5
1.4.2 Writing …………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
1.4.3 Gesture ……………………………………………………………………………………. 7
1.5 Animal Communication and Human Language …………………………………………. 7
1.6 Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………………… 8
1.6.1 Suggested Readings …………………………………………………………………… 9
1.6.2 Questions for discussions …………………………………………………………….. 9
2. LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.2 What is human language? …………………………………………………………………. 10
2.2.1 Design features of language ………………………………………………………. 11
2.3 What is linguistics? …………………………………………………………………………. 14
2.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………. 15
2.4.1 Suggested Readings ……………………………………………………………….. 15
2.4.2 Questions for discussions …………………………………………………………. 15
3. HISTORY AND CLASSIFICATION OF LINGUISTICS
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 16
3.2 History of Linguistics ………………………………………………………………………. 16
3.2.1 The Ancient Grammarians ……………………………………………………….. 17
3.2.2 The Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Age of Enlightment……….. 18
3.2.3 The Nineteenth Century: Linguistics Becomes Science …………………… 19
3.2.4 Traditional and Structural Linguistics in the Twentieth Century ………… 20
3.2.5 Transformational-Generative Grammar ………………………………………. 21
3.3 Classification of Linguistics ………………………………………………………………. 22
3.3.1 Microlinguistics ……………………………………………………………………… 22
3.3.2 Macrolinguistics …………………………………………………………………….. 23
3.4 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
3.4.1 Suggested Further Readings ……………………………………………………………. 24
3.4.2 Questions for Discussions ……………………………………………………………….. 25
4. PHONETICS
4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
4.2 How speech is produced…………………………………………………………………. 27
4.2.1 Wide apart ……………………………………………………………………………. 30
4.2.2 Narrow glottis ……………………………………………………………………….. 30
4.2.3 Position for vocal fold fibration …………………………………………………. 31
4.2.4 Vocal folds tightly closed …………………………………………………………. 31
4.3 Articulatory phonetics – consonants …………………………………………………… 32
4.3.1 Voicing ………………………………………………………………………………… 32
4.3.2 Manner of articulation ……………………………………………………………… 32
4.3.3 Place of articulation…………………………………………………………………. 33
4.3.4 Pronunciation of Consonants ……………………………………………………. 35
4.4 Articulatory phonetics – vowels ………………………………………………………… 36
4.5 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
4.5.1 Suggested Further Readings …………………………………………………….. 38
4.5.2 Questions for Discussions ………………………………………………………… 38
5. PHONOLOGY
5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
5.2 Phonemes and allophones ………………………………………………………………… 39
5.3 Suprasegmental Phonemes ………………………………………………………………. 41
5.3.1 Pitch ……………………………………………………………………………………. 41
5.3.2 Stress ………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
5.3.3 Intonation ……………………………………………………………………………… 43
5.3.4 Juncture ……………………………………………………………………………….. 43
5.4 Rules of phonology …………………………………………………………………………. 43
5.4.1 Segment addition rules …………………………………………………………….. 45
5.4.2 Segment-deletion rules ……………………………………………………………. 45
5.4.3 Segment-change rules ……………………………………………………………… 46
5.5 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
5.5.1 Suggested for Further Readings ………………………………………………… 47
5.5.2 Questions for Discussions ………………………………………………………… 47
6. MORPHOLOGY
6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 48
6.2 Morphology and Morpheme …………………………………………………………….. 48
6.3 Types of morphemes ………………………………………………………………………. 50
6.4 Morph, morpheme, and allomorph …………………………………………………….. 50
6.5 Morphology and Word-formation ……………………………………………………… 51
6.5.1 Inflection ………………………………………………………………………………. 51
6.5.2 Derivation …………………………………………………………………………….. 52
6.6 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
6.6.1 Suggested Readings………………………………………………………………… 54
6.6.2 Questions for Discussions ………………………………………………………… 54
7. SYNTAX
7.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
7.2 Defining Syntax ……………………………………………………………………………… 56
7.2.1 Phrases, words and morphemes ……………………………………………….. 57
7.2.2 Rankscale and rankshift …………………………………………………………… 57
7.2.3 Functions and categories …………………………………………………………. 58
7.3 Types of Phrases ……………………………………………………………………………. 59
7.3.1 The Noun Phrase (NP) …………………………………………………………… 60
7.3.2 The Adjective Phrase (AP) ………………………………………………………. 61
7.3.3 Adverb Phrase (AdvP) ……………………………………………………………. 63
7.3.4 The Verb Phrase (VP) ……………………………………………………………. 63
7.3.5 The Prepositional Phrase (PP) ………………………………………………….. 64
7.4 Describing a Sentence in a Diagram …………………………………………………… 65
7.4.1 Reed-Kellog Diagram …………………………………………………………….. 65
7.4.2 Tree Diagram ………………………………………………………………………… 66
7.5 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 67
7.5.1 Suggested Readings ……………………………………………………………….. 68
7.5.2 Questions for Discussions ………………………………………………………… 68
8. SEMANTICS
8.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
8.2 What is Semantics? ………………………………………………………………………… 69
8.3 The Scope of Semantics ………………………………………………………………….. 71
8.4 Goals of a Semantic Theory ……………………………………………………………… 78
8.5 Semantic Properties and Relations …………………………………………………….. 79
8.5.1 Meaningfulness ………………………………………………………………………. 79
8.5.2 Anomaly ………………………………………………………………………………. 80
8.5.3 Contradictory ………………………………………………………………………… 80
8.5.4 Ambiguity …………………………………………………………………………….. 80
8.5.5 Redundancy ………………………………………………………………………….. 81
8.5.6 Hyponymy ……………………………………………………………………………. 81
8.5.7 Homonyms …………………………………………………………………………… 82
8.5.8 Synonymy …………………………………………………………………………….. 82
8.5.9 Antonymy …………………………………………………………………………….. 83
8.6 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 83
8.6.1 Suggested Readings ……………………………………………………………….. 84
8.6.2 Questions for Discussions ………………………………………………………… 84
9. PRAGMATICS
9.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 85
9.2 Speech Acts …………………………………………………………………………………. 86
9.3 The Form of Sentences and the Purpose of Utterances ………………………….. 86
9.4 Analysis of Speech Acts ………………………………………………………………….. 89
9.5 Seven Kinds of Speech Acts ……………………………………………………………. 91
9.5.1 Assertive Utterances ………………………………………………………………. 92
9.5.2 Performative Utterances ………………………………………………………….. 93
9.5.3 Verdictive Utterances ……………………………………………………………… 94
9.5.4 Expressive Utterances …………………………………………………………….. 95
9.5.5 Directive Utterances ……………………………………………………………….. 96
9.5.6 Commissive Utterances …………………………………………………………… 98
9.5.7 Phatic Utterances …………………………………………………………………… 99
9.6 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 100
9.6.1 Suggested Readings ……………………………………………………………….. 100
9.6.2 Questions for Duscussions ………………………………………………………. 100
10. SOCIOLINGUISTICS
10.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 102
10.2 What is Sociolinguistics? …………………………………………………………………. 102
10.3 Choosing a Code ………………………………………………………………………….. 104
10.3.1 Diglossia ……………………………………………………………………………. 105
10.3.2 Bilingualism and Multilingualism ………………………………………………. 105
10.3.3 Code Choice, Code-Switching, and Code-Mixing …………………….. 106
10.4 Pidgins and Creoles ……………………………………………………………………….. 107
10.4.1 Reasons for the development of Pidgins …………………………………… 108
10.5 Politeness …………………………………………………………………………………….. 108
10.6 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
10.6.1 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………… 113
10.6.2 Suggested Readings ……………………………………………………………… 113
10.6.3 Questions for Discussions ……………………………………………………… 114
11. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
11.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 115
11.2 Sentence Understanding …………………………………………………………………. 115
11.2.1 Motor Theory of Speech Perception ……………………………………….. 116
11.2.2 Analysis by Synthesis ……………………………………………………………. 116
11.2.3 Fuzzy Logical Model ……………………………………………………………. 117
11.2.3 Cohort Model …………………………………………………………………….. 117
11.2.5 TRACE Model …………………………………………………………………… 118
11.3 Sentence Processing ………………………………………………………………………. 118
11.4 Language Acquisition ……………………………………………………………………… 119
11.4.1 Child language acquisition ……………………………………………………… 119
11.4.2 Language development and maturation …………………………………….. 121
11.5 Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………………….. 123
11.5.1 Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………….. 123
11.5.2 Questions for Discussions ……………………………………………………… 123
REFERENCE …………………………………………………………………………………….. 124
